Little Women, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and the Framing of Childhood in Victorian America

ABSTRACT

As the concept of childhood became a focus of upper and middle-class Victorian families, literature in the United States expanded to focus on imparting lessons of wisdom and life to younger readers, serving as a guide as throughout their growth into adulthood. As American writers published novels in an attempt to understand the development of contemporary children, authors used these writings as a way to indirectly teach children about the world around them; providing a medium in which children could learn about American Victorian society and their roles in it according to the societal expectations derived from their class and gender. However, not all novels conformed to societal expectations and norms as authors like Louisa May Alcott and Mark Twain played around with normative structure and provided an alternative moral guide for children to learn from through their literature. Little Women and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer exposed Victorian children to alternative perspectives on society and the world around them, influencing child development by imparting child readers with unconventional viewpoints of gender norms and social expectations of the Victorian era through narratives, characters, and storylines that contemporary readers could relate to easily.

LITTLE WOMEN & THE DEVELOPMENT OF GIRLHOOD

One of the pressing cultural concerns in both Victorian England and America was the continued stability of gender and class identities, which translated into parents teaching children to know their place; “not simply their proper position in society, but how their position in society dictated the physical spaces in which they belonged and those in which they did not” (Firtz, iii). A girl’s virtue in particular was determined and held through their ability to determine and engage in behavior appropriate to the spaces in which they lived, and Victorian literature “sought to organize for the girl reader both the places in which she lived and her ability to define these places in relation to her own subjectivity” (Firtz, iii). Such emphasis on maintaining these identities and distinctions caused Americans during this time to struggle to find themselves and their identities in the context of constantly shifting social, religious, economic, and political constructs; when gendered aspects were added to the mix, things like children’s literature were used as a “prescriptive script that could help guide one to towards establishing a socially sanctioned identity” (Jenkins, 2-3).

Plot Narratives in Little Women

Alcott’s work breaks the mold of creating a form of literature solely intended to reinforce traditional Victorian social norms of gender and class identity, instead creating discourse and the ability for young readers to ask questions about individual identity and social development through her plot narrative. Alcott explores and questions American Victorian social norms through her development and framing of girlhood in Little Women, providing an alternative perspective to the roles of girls and women during the time period. Alcott’s book began in two pieces, with time separating the first half of childhood and the second of adulthood, but Alcott’s unique writing style allows her to thoroughly debate issues of gender and class throughout both original parts of the novel. Little Women considers the changing role of women in American Victorian society by presenting the portraits of the four very different March sisters and their guiding role model Marmee. Each character, in contrast to the forced organization of girl’s and women’s roles in society, offers their own unique perspective of life, family, society, and ambition, allowing for readers to identify with one or more of the sisters and begin to think and internalize the lessons learned by the characters for themselves and their own personal lives.

Alcott also offers readers a looking into how each sister individually struggles to enter and integrate themselves into 19th Century American society, stepping outside of the confines of space and gender identity as defined by Firtz; each sister learns to not only compromise parts of themselves to enter and fit into Victorian society, but also learns how to mold society around themselves. The most prevalent example of this is seen through Jo’s narrative, however, the youngest sister Amy is explored in a similar manner. Instead of focusing on the compromise between individuality and societal expectations, Amy’s internal struggle throughout the novel is concentrated on female pride and ambition within a male-dominated, mostly patriarchal society. While Jo’s ambition to be a great novelist cannot be denied, Amy’s obsession and ambition to present herself as the perfect gentlewoman makes up the entirety of her character arc and plot narrative. While attempt to cultivate her talents and manner into a form of aristocratic grace and politeness, Amy’s ambition clouds her judgment and influences her behavior that manifests itself in a violent temper, insensitivity of others, and desire to become a genius of art like masters before her. However, Amy’s ambition is not well-received by others as ambition such as this from a working-class woman countered the social scripts laid out by Victorian society. While the Victorian period brought with “it increased opportunities for middle-class girls to leave the home and explore new social landscapes, as cultural norms expanded to allow girls to attend school and pursue careers after finishing their education”, girls still were not supposed to be everywhere (Firtz, 3). A woman’s place was “an underpinning of Victorian society” and for the majority of the 19th Century, a girl’s place was still in the domestic sphere. Ambition such as Amy’s to become a genius in a male-dominated field, have a wealthy husband above her station, and have a career that will make her name renowned was not expected and not encouraged in the mid to late 19th Century.

In showcasing Amy’s ambition and ending her narrative with a lesson on how to curb ambition and determination into manageable actions and desires, Alcott demonstrates to her younger readers that ambition in women is not something to be restrained or restricted but encouraged and controlled in a proper manner. In questioning the traditional roles of women and girls in Victorian America, Alcott provides through her story a way for young contemporary readers to grow and learn compromise individuality and ambition with societal expectations through the four narratives of each March sister, diverging away from traditional relationships with nuanced physical spaces in mainstream children’s literature and creating a new medium where women are shown to have more to contribute to society than what gender and class structure and identities dictate.

Little Women and Character Development

The growth of the March sisters and the different character developments of each individual lady showcases the changing role of women during the late 19th Century. Going past typical Goth or Sentimental heroines that were popular at the time, Alcott created a novel about humans going through human struggles that allowed the characters to grow into realistic portrayals of human nature. As Victorian culture suffocated and circumscribed women into narrow roles within society, Alcott used the March family as an example of how growth and development into an individual is not easy but is necessary in order to be happy. As those living in the Victorian period underwent a transformation of identities affected by social, economic, religious, or national energies in an attempt to abide by Victorian social standards in the United States, Alcott’s narrative and framing of character development provided Victorian readers with a place in which they could “consider the intersection of language and culture, desire and prohibition” in the construction of an individual identity (Jenkins, 2).

This is most evidently seen in the character development of, surprisingly, Mrs. March, or Marmee, rather than any of the March sisters themselves. Marmee’s character development is unique in that there really isn’t any present, providing both the March sisters and young contemporary readers with a moral guide throughout the entirety of the novel. One of the most famous and memorable lines made by Marmee in the entire novel is the last line of Alcott’s novel: “Oh my girls, however long you may live, I never can wish you a greater happiness than this!” (Alcott, 472). Marmee’s entire character hinges on the happiness of her daughters, an unusual concept in literature at the time when children were still expected to abide by social norms and class and gender structures, even at the expense of their own happiness and lives (Drotner, 28-29).

As a vast number of different behaviors, attitudes, and worldviews that were forced to mold themselves into Victorian conformity, their worldviews, domestic behaviors, and development of individuality suffered as small domestic industries and workshops in both urban and rural areas were increasingly performed by children in order to keep up with economic demands bolstered by the industrial revolution (Drotner, 30). Marmee’s emotional strength and unwavering support of her daughter’s and their dreams contrasts the traditional role of Victorian parents; she does not force her daughters to marry for money even though the March family is poor, she instills principles of hard work, faith, and honesty in her daughters that help them become independent and self-sufficient and encourages their dreams and decisions instead of confining them to the domestic sphere or in an unhappy marriage. While seemingly typical and expected from parents in the 21st Century, Marmee and her parenting style is central to the story Alcott wanted to tell, providing her readers with their own moral guide and form of support, however fictional, to help them grow as independent individuals alongside the March sisters, no matter how unconventional that may be.

Little Women and The Changing Role of Women in American Victorian Society

From childhood to adulthood, each character in Little Women grows and develops into individuals rich in personality, strife, and emotion that transcends past the traditional roles of women in Victorian America. It was not until the later second half of the 20th Century that the relationship between parents and children became the primary social and emotional connection we see in contemporary society (Fass et. Mason, 1-2). Early nineteenth-century juvenile fiction “created an image of the ideal child… with authors concentrating on inner character and… outward behavior that revealed the state of the inner self. The children whom authors admired in fiction were conscientious, self-disciplined, and obedient” (MacLeod, 127). Alcott plays with this “ideal child” and applies this to her questioning of traditional Victorian roles, using the ideal Victorian image to provide readers with an alternative perspective of the roles of women in American Victorian society. Alcott used the ideal Victorian child to show that women and girls were more than what society dictated they should be, showing how with time, struggle, and development, they could amount to something more than a domestic worker, wife, or mother. The character’s in Alcott’s Little Women are ambitious in their passions and surprisingly independent, learning how to balance their dreams in seeking fulfillment outside of the home as they mature how to shift their ambitions to being happy and realistic within the domestic sphere society confines them to, opening up the question of how the March sister could have lived and loved if they were living in 21st Century America.

TOM SAWYER & THE DEVELOPMENT OF BOYHOOD

Victorian children’s literature in the early 19th Century created an image of an “ideal child” (MacLeod, 127); however, the standards for what constituted an “ideal child” differed greatly not just on an author’s preference, or the class in which the child was born to, but also on the gender of the child in question. The concept of the child hero or heroine holding a unique fascination for middle-class readers during the Victorian era, children’s reading was divided along lines of class and respectability, with works separated between fiction for girls and fiction for boys with no overlap between the two (Trensky, 503-504). Twain’s Adventures of Tom Sawyer falls into the category of the “bad boy” genre within children’s literature, a genre written exclusively by men and occurred as a conscious reaction against the popular depictions of sentimental and pious children within children’s literature (Trensky, 504-505). The aim of such novels was to “rectify the false image of children drawn in the American domestic novels as well as in their European counterparts” through the telling of thrilling and heroic adventures of frontiersmen and soldiers, who consistently demonstrated non-conformity, boldness, and stamina (Trensky, 505-508). Twain’s Tom Sawyer does just that, demonstrating a rough and tough attitude that makes him quick to play, quick to fight, and quick to seek out adventure no matter the consequences. Tom Sawyer provides a sharp contrast to the depictions of childhood presented in Alcott’s Little Women despite both novel’s characters being from rural, poor families; this contrast is ultimately due to the fact that despite each novel’s characters needing to follow the regulations and societal norms of the times, the March sisters are girls and Tom Sawyer is a boy, thus enabling him to shed off the face society demands of him easier and with little to no consequence.

Plot Narratives in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer

Similar to Alcott, Twain uses his novel as a way to debate and question the standard gender and class norms of the Victorian era, but whereas Alcott showcases the ways women and girls can actively contribute to society outside of the domestic circle, Twain uses his narrative to question the traditional definition of boyhood and the qualifications of what it means to be a boy in the 19th Century. Taking place around the same time as Little Women but in the antebellum south instead of the industrial north, the tales Tom Sawyer’s misadventures has become a “a classic portrait of mischievous youth” (Twain, ii). From the beginning of the novel, it becomes apparent that Tom Sawyer looks for trouble and revels in it, abandoning his chores to prank Aunt Polly and tricking his neighbors into paying him for the privilege of whitewashing the family fence for him. From there, Tom Sawyer embodies the bad boy genre through the use of masculine plot narratives: he falls in love and shows off to Becky Thatcher, envies the freedom of Huckleberry Finn for his ability to do whatever he wants because he has no mother, shows up late to school, and indulging in wild fantasies of becoming a pirate, and crashing his own funeral. Twain’s plot narrative focuses on the misadventures of boyhood and the celebration of mischievousness that can be translated into “boys will be boys.”

For young children, the main business of life is play, a process that allows them to reconstruct the elements of daily life into forms and meanings that adults necessarily do not share; however, the process of play was not readily enjoyed across gender and class distinctions, as Twain’s Tom Sawyer runs around rural Mississippi looking for adventure and avoiding hard work and education, and Alcott’s March sisters are confined to only certain types of playing deemed suitable for their gender. Twain’s novel offers an alternative perspective on boyhood by telling his readers that fun and games is a normal part of childhood and is encouraged; Tom Sawyers misadventures and shenanigans with his friends showcases how boys will seek out outside fun and mischievousness usually looked down upon, contrasting the “ideal child” depicted in traditional Victorian literature. Twain’s writing describes the thrill of heroic adventures usually associated with frontiersmen and soldiers, types of men who “demonstrated non-conformity, boldness, and stamina” following the end of the Civil War (Trensky, 508). Twains narrative becomes a celebration of youth in a distinctly different manner than previous depictions of children in Victorian literature. While Adventures of Tom Sawyer was intended to be a form of entertainment for families, it transcends the traditional boundaries of children’s literature by glorifying boyhood rebellion, independent thinking, and personal dedication. Tom Sawyer, however wrong his actions maybe, stands by his decisions and takes his punishments unapologetically; in writing a narrative like this, Twain gives permission for his readers to do the same, teaching them that the misadventures of boyhood are necessary in order for boys to learn life lessons undergo character growth that turns them into responsible, independent leaders in society.

Tom Sawyer’s Character Development

The subtle transition from unchecked mischievousness and rebellion to a sense of responsibility and understanding of personal accountability that makes Twain’s narrative unique in its portrayal of boyhood. While other authors like Charles Dickens use boyhood and male child hero’s as centerpieces of their novels, Twain is unique in that he uses bad behavior as a foundation for personal growth and learning while still allowing his heroes to retain their childhood spirit. In bad boy stories, “it is the boy’s prerogative, if not his duty, to prove his full-blooded maleness… he is disobedient, but his badness is endearing rather than unpleasant” (Trensky, 508). This describes Tom Sawyer’s innate character perfectly, but though Tom remains a child at the end of the book, he is not the same person at the conclusion that he was at the beginning. Tom Sawyer is not bad, as explained by Aunt Polly, he was “only wild and full of life, like any young animal, He did not wish to do bad things. And no boy ever had a kinder heart” (Twain, 46).

Twains uses Tom Swayer to provide nostalgia of boyhood and show how imperfect naughtiness and adventure are critical towards a male’s development. Tom’s character development comes from his eventual realization that his actions can have serious consequences, on others and not just himself. Throughout the first half of the novel, Tom’s bad behavior primarily results in punishments on himself: when he is late to school in Chapter 7, he is whipped by his schoolteacher for being late and associating himself with town pariah Huckleberry Finn; in Chapter 1, he narrowly escapes being hit by Aunt Polly for stealing jam and not doing his chores; when he hits on Becky in Chapter 8, he mistakenly brings up his old sweetheart and causes Becky to hit him and grow angry at his unfaithfulness (Twain). However, by the end of the novel, after having witnessed a murder and knowing that an innocent man could be hanged for it, Tom realizes that his actions, his silence on the matter, could have serious ramification on another besides himself, and with that comes guilt, shame, and the realization that actions to have consequences on not just the self, but on others. The character development of Tom Sawyer shows how boyhood is necessary for boys to learn and develop empathy for others and rational decision making beyond individual selfishness; it makes readers consider others beyond personal vanity and develop a sense of respect that can be carried on into adulthood, making Twain’s novel a moral guide similar to Alcott’s that readers can relate and learn from.

Tom Sawyer and The Exploration of Boyhood in American Victorian Society

The concept of boyhood is readily explored and developed in Twain’s novel, providing readers with an alternative perspective of what it means to be a young boy in Victorian society. While males were not constricted to the domestic sphere and could more freely move throughout society than women in the Victorian period, there were still behaviors and actions that men were expected to uphold and embody. Twain uses the idealized concepts of youth and innocence to showcase how children learn life lessons through interaction with their environments, good or bad. Twain showcases Tom’s passion for life through his never- ending play and search for adventure; it is this passion that Twain uses to transition Tom from childhood innocence and fun to a more mature outlook on life. While retaining his love for adventure, Twain uses Tom’s boyhood as a way to teach readers how to gradually transition into adulthood without losing their sense of play and fun. Author B.P Shillaber commented on this transformation, writing that “All the bad boys will grow up to be respectable and successful lawyers, doctors, businessmen, and maybe even senators and governors because all the boy's eccentricities harden in good time into manly character” (Trensky, 510). Tom Sawyer allows readers to see a modification of other children in American fiction (Trensky, 511), showing how undesirable traits like mischievousness and passion for adventure can mature into traits coveted and desired by Victorian society. Tom Sawyer’s capacity to feel intensely and respond to nature makes him a part of a trope of welcome saviors for what was then considered a materialistic and increasingly urban America, (Trensky, 511), showing how there are alternative ways to become the men society desired and welcomed while still retaining a sense of childhood fun. Tom Sawyer serves as a reminder for adults as to what their childhood was like, it also serves as both an example and warning of what comes after childhood-- the world of adults, or more specifically, the world of men (Lowery, 111).

CONCLUSION: THE INFLUENCE OF ALCOTT & TWAIN ON VICTORIAN CHILDREN

Both Alcott and Twain’s children’s literature imply that social change is possible, communicating that adolescents can make a social difference” (Trites, 143). Both novels share a romantic faith in the ability of children to improve society with an emphasis on how children can grow and teach their elders lessons as well. The essential message to readers is “with self-improvement, you can improve the world” (Trites, 144). The idea of hard work paying off with prosperity is not new to 19th Century America, but the influence of works like Alcott’s and Twain’s is more readily seen in the early 20th Century with the growing industrial, suburban middle-class and diversification of American society. It can be seen through these novels that the idea that children and women were more than what society dictated traced back to the later part of the Victorian Era through adolescent characters who serve as metaphors for the need for social change (Trites, 149), and guides for Victorian children to learn how to instigate change through their own actions and life experiences. As authors, artists, and intellectuals alike questioned the roles of individuals within society, narratives such as Little Women and the Adventures of Tom Sawyer provided younger readers with alternative perspectives of gender norms and social expectations emphasized and reinforced in the Victorian era. Through the use of plot narratives, character development, and storylines, Alcott and Twain have created novels that serve as mediums for debate on unconventional viewpoints of society.

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